Empirical research on developmental risks of armed guards and SROs in schools overview:

Empirical research has shown that the presence of armed guards or School Resource Officers (SROs) in schools — especially suburban and public settings — can increase exclusionary discipline, law enforcement contact, and student anxiety. These outcomes have documented links to long-term developmental harms including poorer academic performance, reduced emotional well-being, and increased justice system involvement.

1. Increases in Exclusionary Discipline:

Studies consistently find higher rates of suspensions, expulsions, and arrests in schools that employ SROs.

• Fisher & Hennessy (2016) conducted a meta-analysis showing that SRO introduction often increases disciplinary actions.

• Urban Institute (2023) found schools with SROs report higher incidents of offenses and law enforcement referrals, disproportionately affecting minority and low-income students.

2. Impact on School Climate and Mental Health:

Visible armed presence can increase student anxiety and reduce feelings of safety for some children

(RAND, 2024). Research indicates that perceived surveillance and policing can undermine trust between students and educators, leading to disengagement.

• RAND (2024) review: SROs have limited evidence of improving safety but significant evidence of worsened school climate.

• Bureau of Justice Statistics (2023) reported that SROs often engage in enforcement activities without sufficient school oversight.

3. Developmental Consequences via Exclusionary Discipline:

Suspensions and arrests during childhood and adolescence are correlated with lower test scores, increased grade repetition, depressive symptoms, and higher likelihood of later justice system involvement.

• LiCalsi et al. (AIR, 2021) and longitudinal studies (2024–2025) demonstrate that exclusionary discipline has lasting negative effects on academic and social development.

4. Equity and Disproportionate Harm:

Black, Latinx, and low-income students experience greater exposure to SROs and are more likely to face harsh consequences (Urban Institute, 2023).

5. Summary:

Empirical evidence supports a clear developmental risk pathway: SRO presence → increased exclusionary discipline → academic, emotional, and social harms.

Even where safety benefits are minimal or unproven, these negative developmental outcomes are consistently observed across studies.

Key References:

• Fisher, B. W., & Hennessy, E. A. (2016). *School Resource Officers and Exclusionary Discipline: A

Meta-analysis.

• Urban Institute (Kidane & Rauscher, 2023). *Unequal Exposure to School Resource Officers.

• Bureau of Justice Statistics (2023). *School Resource Officers, 2019–2020.

• RAND (2024). *The Role and Impact of School Resource Officers.

• LiCalsi et al. (2021). *AIR NYC Discipline Study