The bald and golden eagles and their feathers are highly valued by most Native Americans. Usually, the logo of an eagle feather is seen as a symbol of the Native Americans. They honor and respect the eagles for they are believed to symbolize certain characteristics such as honesty, truth, majesty, strength, courage, wisdom, power and freedom.[13] Native Americans consider eagles to be the Master of the sky since they fly higher than any other birds and therefore are closer to God. It is also believed that because eagles fly higher in the sky for long periods of time, they carry prayers from ground to the Creator of the world.[13] Due to all of these reasons, wearing or receiving an eagle feather is considered a mark of honor in many Native American cultures. To capture and kill the eagles was a skill-requiring job, therefore certain men were assigned to do so. Many tribes wore the eagle feathers in their hair during ceremonies and dancing. Men would receive certain numbers of feathers depending on the task that was performed. For example, a Pillager Chippewa is costumed to give two feathers to a warrior who scalped an enemy and five feathers to one who performed an act of capturing a wounded prisoner found on the battlefield.[14]

Under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, permits can be obtained to possess the eagles parts and feathers for religious purposes and lawful activities.[15] In June 2007, bald eagles were removed from the Endangered Species List however, the protection Act still applies.[16] As of 2009, the Act has made it possible for one to obtain a permit to move from operating utilities and airports. Previously these deeds would have been considered disturbance, but now as long as it is limited, non-purposeful take of bald eagles and golden eagles; authorizing individuals, companies, government agencies (including tribal governments), and other organizations are allowed disturb or otherwise take eagles in the course of conducting lawful activities. "Non-purposeful take" is defined as taking of eagles for reasons that are associated with take that is not purposeful of an activity; but for a purpose that practically cannot be avoided.[3]

The Act has at times hindered renewable energy projects. Wind turbines can kill and injure birds, including eagles, potentially exposing their operators to criminal liability under the Act, even those which have taken steps to reduce eagle mortality. A draft of guidelines for the wind energy industry, which incorporates means for applying for "incidental take" permits under the Act and thus avoiding its penalties, was released in 2011 by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.[17][18]

Decline of the bald and golden eagle population[edit]
With the introduction of DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) as a widespread insecticide in the United States from 1940 to 1950 to control malaria, the bald eagle population decreased precipitously, falling to a low point of 487 nesting pairs in 1963. By this point, the detrimental effects of DDT had already been a causative factor in the decline of other bird populations, and public awareness was raised when Rachel Carson published her book Silent Spring in 1962.[19] DDT alters the calcium metabolism of female birds, preventing them from creating a hard shell around the eggs they produce. This egg thinning led to a higher rate of egg loss due to cracks during incubation.[20] Dead birds retained large amounts of DDT in their fatty tissues and gonads which may have caused the birds to become infertile. Moreover, small animals ate plants that were sprayed with other pesticides which were then eaten by the birds of prey.

More than 100,000 bald eagles were killed in Alaska from 1917 to 1953. Public awareness arose during this time, and many groups and individuals dedicated to make the conservation of eagles a national issue. The Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Maryland started to breed eagles in captivity to increase the population numbers. The goal was to breed enough birds to increase the population of bald eagles in areas where the population was declining and to re-introduce them in those areas where they had been wiped out completely. The center started breeding with one pair and began studying their behavior, functioning, and other areas to make this a successful rehabilitation program. In 1988, the program was stopped due to their success in increasing the number of eagles in the environment. At this time the bald eagles had started breeding naturally

Although United States banned DDT in 1972, other factors played a role in the declining of bald and golden eagles. Dieldrin and polychlorinated biphenyl are pollutants in the environment that can also harm the eagles and their nesting area. These chemicals disperse and remain in the environment causing problems for these birds. Human activity is another reason for the declining of the bald eagles. In contrast, the golden eagle primarily eats rabbits, hares, ground squirrels, and other common prey which has allowed them to escape the harms of DDT and other related chemicals. Unlike the rupture of the bald eagle eggshells, the golden eagles shells retained their thickness. There was a known cause in the reproduction system due to the pesticide concentration in their blood stream.[7]Additionally, power lines cause a frequent electrocution, which results in death for the majority of the eagle population. Electric Companies have been assisted by scientists and researchers to make power lines and poles a safe for the eagles.In the early 1970s, utility companies have designed poles to prevent eagle electrocutions. And some new power lines in nonurban areas have been built to "raptor-safe" construction standards.[7] Native Americans have been killing bald eagles for centuries for religious purposes. The goal of killing the eagle is to gather eagle feathers for religious ceremonies. The third reason of this declination is in most states, animal traps are set on the ground to kill untamed animals for fur. As animals are trapped, eagles become attracted to the bait and eventually are caught in the trap. Eagles' feet play a crucial role in food hunting and if trapped, the injured bird can starve and die before its foot heals. Another reason is duck and geese hunters who shoot from rifles and guns may actually kill bald eagles. In addition, hunters who have shot and neglected ducks and geese are retrieved by eagles. This results in poisoning the eagle by the gunshots from the hunters. Lastly, majority of farmers and rancher consider bald and golden eagles a threat to their livestock's, and therefore shoot them. Primarily, the golden eagles were not affected by DDT, but rather in the change of diet. Unfortunately, many assumptions are made about the bald and golden eagles, thinking they are a harmful. The two eagles seek for dead animals that are killed from other factors.[22] The measures that were taken to protect bald and golden eagles such as the 1940 Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, banning of DDT in 1972, the Bald Eagle Endangered Species Act of 1973, and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service Program of 1992 (to phase out the use of lead shot for waterfowl hunting), all helped upgrade their status from 'endangered' to 'threatened'.

Bald eagle recovery and conservation[edit]
Since

Since the 1972 ban on DDT the eagle has been able to gain healthy population growth. The US fish and wildlife services were able to achieve this with the cleaning of waterways including lakes and rivers, protecting nesting sites, and reintroducing eagles back to their original environments.[23]

The bald eagle was first proposed to be removed from the protection of the US Endangered Species Act by the US fish and wildlife services in the 1999 issue of the Federal Register.[24] The final rule to remove or delist the bald eagle from the Endangered Species act was published on July 9, 2007 and was put into effect on August 8, 2007. When the bald eagle was removed the FWS had collected data on 9,789 breeding pairs.[25]

In 1983, the Northern States Bald Eagle Recovery Plan was proposed. This plan, like the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center plan, had goals to reestablish self-sustaining populations of bald eagles throughout the Northern regions. Their initial goal was to have 1,200 occupied breeding areas, that is "the local area associated with one territorial pair of eagles and containing one or more nest structures" distributed over a minimum of 16 states within the region by year 2000. They aimed to achieve an annual productivity of 1.0 young per occupied nest. The plan had specific tasks that were characterized by following categories: 1. Determine current populations and habitat status, 2. determine minimum population and habitat needed to achieve the goal, 3. protect, and increase the bald eagle populations habitats, and 4. implement a coordination system for information and communication. To achieve these tasks, annual surveys, habitat assessment, site-specific management plan and establishing improved communication and coordination.They worked on improving the habitat conditions especially during winter to maximize the survival rate of these eagles

Since the 1972 ban on DDT the eagle has been able to gain healthy population growth. The US fish and wildlife services were able to achieve this with the cleaning of waterways including lakes and rivers, protecting nesting sites, and reintroducing eagles back to their original environments.[23]

The bald eagle was first proposed to be removed from the protection of the US Endangered Species Act by the US fish and wildlife services in the 1999 issue of the Federal Register.[24] The final rule to remove or delist the bald eagle from the Endangered Species act was published on July 9, 2007 and was put into effect on August 8, 2007. When the bald eagle was removed the FWS had collected data on 9,789 breeding pairs.[25]

In 1983, the Northern States Bald Eagle Recovery Plan was proposed. This plan, like the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center plan, had goals to reestablish self-sustaining populations of bald eagles throughout the Northern regions. Their initial goal was to have 1,200 occupied breeding areas, that is "the local area associated with one territorial pair of eagles and containing one or more nest structures" distributed over a minimum of 16 states within the region by year 2000. They aimed to achieve an annual productivity of 1.0 young per occupied nest. The plan had specific tasks that were characterized by following categories: 1. Determine current populations and habitat status, 2. determine minimum population and habitat needed to achieve the goal, 3. protect, and increase the bald eagle populations habitats, and 4. implement a coordination system for information and communication. To achieve these tasks, annual surveys, habitat assessment, site-specific management plan and establishing improved communication and coordination.They worked on improving the habitat conditions especially during winter to maximize the survival rate of these eagles

lthough United States banned DDT in 1972, other factors played a role in the declining of bald and golden eagles. Dieldrin and polychlorinated biphenyl are pollutants in the environment that can also harm the eagles and their nesting area. These chemicals disperse and remain in the environment causing problems for these birds. Human activity is another reason for the declining of the bald eagles. In contrast, the golden eagle primarily eats rabbits, hares, ground squirrels, and other common prey which has allowed them to escape the harms of DDT and other related chemicals. Unlike the rupture of the bald eagle eggshells, the golden eagles shells retained their thickness. There was a known cause in the reproduction system due to the pesticide concentration in their blood stream.[7]Additionally, power lines cause a frequent electrocution, which results in death for the majority of the eagle population. Electric Companies have been assisted by scientists and researchers to make power lines and poles a safe for the eagles.In the early 1970s, utility companies have designed poles to prevent eagle electrocutions. And some new power lines in nonurban areas have been built to "raptor-safe" construction standards.[7] Native Americans have been killing bald eagles for centuries for religious purposes. The goal of killing the eagle is to gather eagle feathers for religious ceremonies. The third reason of this declination is in most states, animal traps are set on the ground to kill untamed animals for fur. As animals are trapped, eagles become attracted to the bait and eventually are caught in the trap. Eagles' feet play a crucial role in food hunting and if trapped, the injured bird can starve and die before its foot heals. Another reason is duck and geese hunters who shoot from rifles and guns may actually kill bald eagles. In addition, hunters who have shot and neglected ducks and geese are retrieved by eagles. This results in poisoning the eagle by the gunshots from the hunters. Lastly, majority of farmers and rancher consider bald and golden eagles a threat to their livestock's, and therefore shoot them. Primarily, the golden eagles were not affected by DDT, but rather in the change of diet. Unfortunately, many assumptions are made about the bald and golden eagles, thinking they are a harmful. The two eagles seek for dead animals that are killed from other factors.[22] The measures that were taken to protect bald and golden eagles such as the 1940 Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, banning of DDT in 1972, the Bald Eagle Endangered Species Act of 1973, and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service Program of 1992 (to phase out the use of lead shot for waterfowl hunting), all helped upgrade their status from 'endangered' to 'threatened'.

Bald eagle recovery and conservation[edit]
Since the 1972 ban on DDT the eagle has been able to gain healthy population growth. The US fish and wildlife services were able to achieve this with the cleaning of waterways including lakes and rivers, protecting nesting sites, and reintroducing eagles back to their original environments.[23]

The bald eagle was first proposed to be removed from the protection of the US Endangered Species Act by the US fish and wildlife services in the 1999 issue of the Federal Register.[24] The final rule to remove or delist the bald eagle from the Endangered Species act was published on July 9, 2007 and was put into effect on August 8, 2007. When the bald eagle was removed the FWS had collected data on 9,789 breeding pairs.[25]In 1983, the Northern States Bald Eagle Recovery Plan was proposed. This plan, like the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center plan, had goals to reestablish self-sustaining populations of bald eagles throughout the Northern regions. Their initial goal was to have 1,200 occupied breeding areas, that is "the local area associated with one territorial pair of eagles and containing one or more nest structures" distributed over a minimum of 16 states within the region by year 2000. They aimed to achieve an annual productivity of 1.0 young per occupied nest. The plan had specific tasks that were characterized by following categories: 1. Determine current populations and habitat status, 2. determine minimum population and habitat needed to achieve the goal, 3. protect, and increase the bald eagle populations habitats, and 4. implement a coordination system for information and communication. To achieve these tasks, annual surveys, habitat assessment, site-specific management plan and establishing improved communication and coordination.They worked on improving the habitat conditions especially during winter to maximize the survival rate of these eagles [26]

The purpose of a recovery plan for any species is to improve the ranking of the species or remove it from the endangered list. The bald eagle has recovered in most regions of the United States. The banning of DDT made a tremendous impact on the recovery of the bald and golden eagles. The bald eagle is a prominent resident in New York. In the 1960s, the declination of these birds from New York increased due to the distribution of pesticides and habitat destruction. In 1976, the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) formed a restoration program called the "hacking technique." The purpose of this technique is to take eaglets (hacking) from wild nests and transfer them to a region where they are raised in artificial nests.[27] The young birds were placed on an artificial nesting platform for several weeks. The birds lived in cages once their feathers became fully developed. In addition, they were fed and watched by human caretakers. Around 12 to13 weeks old, the eaglets were tested for their flying ability. In order to monitor the birds, a small radio transmitters were placed on the bird's back. DEC assisted with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Cornell University to release 23 successful young eagles. The young eagles learned how to hunt and feed on their own without any parental care. Once they were raised and matured, they were released back to where they were raised from and in hopes of becoming breeding birds. The program was a success across the nation for 13 years. In 1989, the program ended due to an observation made by state biologists. It was observed that the population of released birds was increasing in the New York state reproducing successfully. Due to the Environmental Quality Bond act and the Environmental Protection Fund, these birds are growing at a steady rate by taking advantage of the open land and habitats.[28]

Post de-listing monitoring plan[edit]
Under the authority of the Endangered Species Act, a post delisting monitoring plan has been created within states for all the species that have been recovered and delisted. The service requires monitoring bald eagles in a continuous manner over a period of 20 years with sampling events detained once every 5 years. The states have accumulated an attempt to check the bald eagle population annually including their nesting areas and habit areas. The objective of this plan is to gather data from the set of known nest locations and combine it with the area plot samples selected from eagle habitat areas across the nation to present a dual frame estimate. Combining the two data results will provide an accurate estimate of the actual nesting population of bald eagles. The plan includes having a close observation of the bald eagles' nests by the state natural resource/wildlife conservation agencies. The purpose of the plan is to distinguish a 25 percent change in occupied bald eagle nests on a national scale over a period of 5-year interval with an 80 percent chance of detecting a 25 percent chance or higher difference between 5-year intervals. A minimum of 200 plots are required to survey across the nation with habitats that include a medium to high density of bald eagle nests. The weather, habit change, population cycles, contaminants, and productivity will be taken into consideration if the bald eagle population is declining. In addition, under the Endangered Species act, further research, extension of monitoring, and resumption of federal protection will take place. The bald eagle's recovery is an intriguing success story. The intention of this plan is to maintain and protect the population from any harm.[29]

Recovery plan in the lower 48 states[edit]

Recovery plan in the lower 48 states[edit]
Table 1. The bald eagle population in the lower 48 states is divided into five recovery regions [30]

Recovery Region
Delisting Goals
Current Estimate of Breeding Pairs
Chesapeake Bay
300–400 pairs
1,093
Pacific
800 pairs
2,157
Southeastern
1,500 breeding areas
2,227
Southwestern
Not Available
47
Northern States
1,200 breeding areas
4,215
Total 3900 pairs + Southwest 9,789 breeding pairs
Penalty[edit]
Criminal

The criminal penalty stipulation was increased from a maximum fine of $500 and six months imprisonment to a maximum fine of $5,000 and one year's imprisonment. Furthermore, in the second case of second conviction, the penalty was increased to $10,000 fine and two years imprisonment. The maximum amount of a misdemeanor offense was increased $100,000 under the Criminal Fines and Improvement Act of 1987. In addition, $250,000 will be fined for an individual for a felony conviction. Respectively, $200,000 and $500,000 will be fined in case of an organization for a misdemeanor and felony conviction.[2]

Civil penalty[edit]
The civil penalty provision was added, stating anyone who takes, possess, transports, sells, barters, or purchases any dead or alive bald or golden eagles will be fined $5,000 for each violation. In addition, he or she who violates or disturbs any egg or nest will be fined under the civil penalty act. The act allowed the taking, possession, or transporting of the bald and golden eagles in areas where they were endangering wildlife and livestock.[2]